As a Christian in America, especially in the South, the notion of hell has been ingrained in my religious upbringing through the fiery rhetoric of hellfire preaching. One of the seminal sermons that profoundly shaped American Christianity is "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." This powerful sermon was delivered by the Puritan preacher Jonathan Edwards in 1741 during the First Great Awakening. In his sermon, Edwards vividly depicted the terrifying consequences of sin and the wrath of God, warning his congregation of the imminent danger of eternal damnation. The imagery of sinners dangling over the fiery pit of hell, held only by the fragile thread of God's mercy, struck fear into the hearts of listeners and left an indelible mark on American Christian views of hell. However, while this perspective on hell has been influential, it is essential to question whether it represents the prevailing or historically accurate understanding of hell within Christendom.
The concept of Hell in the Christian tradition has been profoundly influenced over the centuries not only by biblical texts but also by cultural, literary, and artistic representations throughout history. Much of the vivid imagery associated with Hell has been shaped by seminal works such as Dante's "Inferno" and medieval art. For instance, Dante's depiction of Hell as a series of concentric circles with specific punishments corresponding to various sins has become ingrained in popular imagination. Similarly, medieval art often portrayed Hell as a place of grotesque torment, populated by demons and damned souls enduring eternal punishment. These artistic and literary influences have contributed to shaping modern perceptions of Hell, highlighting the interplay between theology, culture, and imagination in the construction of eschatological beliefs.
But what do Christians really believe, and more importantly, what does the Bible teach?
While cultural depictions of Hell have undoubtedly left a lasting impression on the popular imagination, the theological understanding of Hell among Christians varies far more considerably than the average person is aware. Even the foundational texts of the Bible provide a diverse array of imagery and language regarding the afterlife, including concepts such as Sheol, Gehenna, Hades, and Tartarus.
These terms offer glimpses into the ancient Israelite and early Christian conceptions of the underworld and divine judgment. However, the interpretation and significance of these concepts have been subject to theological reflection and debate throughout Christian history. Therefore, to discern the true biblical teachings on Hell, one must engage with both the scriptural texts themselves and the rich theological tradition that has developed over centuries of Christian thought and interpretation.
Let’s briefly explore the historical trajectory of Hell within the Christian tradition. We will begin by examining the biblical words translated as "hell" and tracing the evolution of the concept through Jewish and early Christian thought. We will conclude with an analysis of its significance in contemporary American Evangelicalism.
I. Biblical Terminology for Hell
Sheol
The Hebrew word often translated as hell is "Sheol," Sheol is prevalent in the Old Testament, and carries profound significance in ancient Israelite thought. During the time of its usage, likely spanning from the 10th to the 5th century BCE, Sheol represented the universal destination of ALL humanity upon death. It transcended the moral categories of good and evil, serving as a common dwelling place for BOTH righteous and wicked souls.
In the Israelite worldview, Sheol was not necessarily a place of punishment but rather a shadowy realm where the deceased continued a dim existence, devoid of the vitality and joys of life (Job 14:13; Psalm 16:10). The imagery associated with Sheol evoked a sense of darkness, stillness, and separation from the land of the living, reflecting the ancient Israelites' understanding of death as a transition to a shadowy existence beyond the realm of the living (Psalm 88:10-12).
Gehenna
The second word often translated as hell is Gehenna. Gehenna, derived from the Hebrew "Valley of Hinnom," a valley just outside the gates of Jerusalem, carries historical and cultural significance dating back to the time of the prophets. During the period of prophetic literature, approximately from the 8th to the 6th century BCE, the Valley of Hinnom was notorious for its association with idolatrous practices, including child sacrifice to pagan deities (Jeremiah 7:31). This historical context shaped the imagery of Gehenna as a symbol of divine judgment and punishment in later Jewish and Christian writings.
In the New Testament era, Gehenna came to represent a place of fiery judgment, often associated with destruction and torment. While some interpretations suggest a literal location outside Jerusalem where garbage was burned, many historians argue that this common teaching is not likely accurate. Either way, Gehenna served primarily as a metaphor for the ultimate fate awaiting the unrepentant wicked. Jesus references Gehenna to illustrate the seriousness of sin and the consequences of rejecting God's ways, emphasizing its association with destruction and divine judgment (Matthew 5:22, 29-30).
Hades
Jumping forward to the Greek Hellenized narrative of the New Testament, we find the word “Hades” translated as hell in Greek mythology. Hades was the realm ruled by the god of the same name, serving as the abode of the dead. In the New Testament, written between the 1st and 2nd century CE, the term "Hades" was used interchangeably with Sheol to denote the place of departed spirits (Acts 2:27). For the early Christians, Hades represented the intermediate state between death and final judgment, where souls awaited their ultimate destiny.
Unlike the vivid imagery associated with Gehenna, Hades conveyed a sense of transition and anticipation, signaling the state of existence after death but before the consummation of all things. The usage of Hades in the New Testament reflects the influence of Greek language and culture on early Christian thought, as well as the continuity with Jewish concepts of the afterlife.
Rather than being places of eternal punishment, Hades and Sheol were transitional states where ALL souls awaited their ultimate fate. In contrast to the emphasis on divine judgment and retribution found in modern portrayals of Hell, Hades and Sheol were not primarily associated with punishment or reward. Unlike the fiery torments commonly associated with modern depictions of Hell, Hades and Sheol were characterized more by a sense of dimness, stillness, and separation from the land of the living. While the exact nature of existence in Hades and Sheol varied across ancient texts and cultural contexts, they were generally portrayed as places of quietude and somber reflection rather than fiery torment or physical punishment.
Tartarus
The last word, translated as hell, or Tartarus, is mentioned only once in the New Testament in 2 Peter 2:4. This word carries distinct connotations drawn from Greek mythology. In Greek cosmology, Tartarus was a deep abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the most wicked beings, including rebellious mythological gods and Titans. Its appearance in 2 Peter reflects the author's adaptation of Greek mythology to convey metaphorical theological truths about divine judgment and punishment. By invoking Tartarus as a place of confinement for fallen angels, the author emphasizes the seriousness of apostasy and the certainty of divine judgment for those who rebel against God. While Tartarus represents a departure from traditional Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, its inclusion in the New Testament reflects the syncretic nature of early Christian thought, incorporating elements from both Jewish and Greco-Roman traditions.
The blending of ancient words such as Sheol, Gehenna, Hades, and Tartarus, each carrying theological significance along with Greek mythology and metaphor, has played a pivotal role in shaping the imagery depicted in modern concepts of Hell. As historian Diarmaid MacCulloch eloquently expresses, "The imagery of Hell is as much scriptural as it is metaphorical, drawing from a complex interplay of biblical texts, theological reflections, cultural symbolism, and literary traditions."
So how did the early church understand hell?
II. Evolution of the Concept of Hell
Early Old Testament Jewish Understanding of Sheol
In the early Old Testament period, the Hebrew concept of Sheol, previously defined, represented a foundational understanding of the afterlife among the ancient Israelites. Sheol was perceived as a subterranean realm, a shadowy abode where all departed souls, regardless of their moral standing, would descend upon death. This concept emerges prominently in texts such as Psalm 6:5, where the psalmist declares, "For in death there is no remembrance of you; in Sheol who will give you praise?"
Leading historians and theologians, such as Jon D. Levenson and John J. Collins, have extensively explored the development of Sheol within the context of the ancient Israelite religion. They highlight Sheol as a neutral realm, devoid of the distinctions between reward and punishment that later characterize Christian conceptions of Heaven and Hell. Instead, Sheol was envisioned as a place of silence and inactivity, where the deceased existed in a state of semi-consciousness, cut off from the land of the living (Psalm 88:10-12).
Addition of the Concept of Paradise and Separation from God
As Jewish eschatological beliefs evolved, so too did the concept of Sheol. While Sheol initially served as a universal destination for all the dead, irrespective of their moral deeds, later Jewish thought began to incorporate notions of reward and punishment into the afterlife narrative. This development is evident in texts such as the Book of Enoch, which introduces the idea of a righteous afterlife characterized by paradise or "Abraham's bosom," where the souls of the righteous dwell in close proximity to God (Luke 16:22).
Renowned scholars like N.T. Wright and Richard Bauckham have explored the nuances of Jewish eschatology and its impact on early Christian beliefs. They emphasize the gradual emergence of the dichotomy between the righteous and the wicked in the afterlife, laying the foundation for the dualistic understandings of Heaven and Hell found in later Christian theology. This division reflects a growing emphasis on moral accountability and divine justice within Jewish thought, shaping subsequent Christian interpretations of the afterlife.
Teachings of Jesus on Hell
Many people assert that Jesus spoke about hell more than any other topic in the Bible. This belief stems from the vivid imagery and warnings about judgment and eternal punishment found in Jesus' teachings, particularly in the Gospels. Passages such as Matthew 25:41, where Jesus speaks of eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels, and Mark 9:48, where he describes hell as a place where "the fire is not quenched," contribute to the perception that Jesus emphasized the reality of hell.
However, upon closer examination, it becomes evident that Jesus spoke extensively on a wide range of topics beyond hell. His teachings encompassed themes such as love, forgiveness, compassion, the kingdom of God, salvation, and ethical living. Jesus emphasized the core principles of the kingdom, including love for God and neighbor, humility, mercy, justice, and forgiveness. He challenged societal norms and religious traditions that contradicted the values of the kingdom, calling people to repentance and a transformed way of life.
Jesus' focus on the kingdom of God reflected his central mission to reconcile humanity to God and restore God's reign on earth. He demonstrated through his words and actions that the kingdom was not limited to a future event but was breaking into the present reality through his ministry.
However, the teachings Jesus gave on Hell significantly contributed to the evolution of Christian understandings of the afterlife. Jesus employs vivid imagery and stark warnings to convey the seriousness of divine judgment and the consequences of unrepentant sin. In passages such as Matthew 25:46, Jesus speaks of eternal punishment for the wicked and eternal life for the righteous, underscoring the weight of moral choices and the ultimate destiny of souls.
Renowned biblical scholars and theologians such as John P. Meier and Craig S. Keener have meticulously analyzed Jesus' teachings on Hell within their historical and cultural contexts. They emphasize Jesus' use of Gehenna, a term associated with the Valley of Hinnom's historical connotations of judgment and destruction, to illustrate the fate of the wicked. By employing vivid imagery and provocative language, Jesus underscores the urgency of repentance and the reality of divine judgment in shaping one's eternal destiny.
III. From Scripture to Practice in the Early Church.
The Didache
The Didache occupies a profound place within early Christian literature, revered by theologians and scholars for its illuminating insights into the beliefs and practices of the early Church. Dating back to the first century, this ancient document serves as a valuable guide, offering a glimpse into the faith and practices of Christianity's formative years. As a devoted student of Christian history, I find the Didache to be a veritable treasure trove of wisdom from the earliest days of our faith. Yet, it surprises me how few practicing Christians are acquainted with this invaluable resource—the best glimpse into the beliefs of the early Church we have post-scripture. (If you haven't read it, I wholeheartedly encourage you to do so.)
Biblical scholars further underscore the Didache's significance in understanding early Christian life and thought. Michael W. Holmes, a distinguished scholar of early Christian literature, affirms, "The Didache is a crucial witness to the faith and practice of the early Christian communities." Similarly, Larry W. Hurtado, an eminent authority on early Christianity, highlights the Didache as providing "a fascinating snapshot of early Christian instruction and practice."
A notable aspect of the Didache's teachings is its emphasis on ethical living in the present life. In contrast to some later Christian writings that focus predominantly on the afterlife, the Didache prioritizes practical guidance for ethical conduct and communal living. Its instructions on topics such as the Two Ways, baptism, fasting, and the Eucharist underscore the early Christians' commitment to embodying their faith in tangible ways within their communities.
Biblical scholars such as Bart D. Ehrman and Richard Bauckham have reflected on the significance of the Didache's silence regarding certain theological topics. Ehrman observes, "The Didache gives us a window into the ethical concerns of the early Christian community, emphasizing practical instruction for living a life of faithfulness and integrity." Similarly, Bauckham highlights the Didache's focus on ethical living and communal practices, asserting, "The Didache offers valuable insights into the priorities of early Christians, underscoring their emphasis on ethical conduct and communal living."
The Didache emphasizes ethical living and communal practices, reminding Christians of the importance of integrating their faith with practical action. While beliefs about the afterlife undoubtedly hold significance, the Didache encourages believers to prioritize faithful living in the present, embodying the values of the kingdom of God in their daily lives.
The Creeds and Hell
Jumping ahead to the foundations of the early church, we must address the foundational doctrinal creeds. The Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed stand as pivotal statements of Christian faith, both historically and theologically. The Apostles' Creed, believed to have originated in its current form during the early to mid-first millennium AD, serves as a concise summary of essential Christian doctrines.
I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
Creator of heaven and earth.
I believe in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord,
who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
born of the Virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried;
He descended into hell;
on the third day, He rose again from the dead;
He ascended into heaven,
and is seated at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
from there He will come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and the life everlasting. Amen.
On the other hand, the Nicene Creed emerged from the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, with subsequent revisions leading to its final form at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD.
We believe in one God,
the Father, the Almighty,
maker of heaven and earth,
of all that is, seen and unseen.
We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ,
the only Son of God,
eternally begotten of the Father,
God from God, Light from Light,
true God from true God,
begotten, not made,
of one Being with the Father.
Through Him all things were made.
For us and for our salvation
He came down from heaven:
by the power of the Holy Spirit
He became incarnate from the Virgin Mary,
and was made man.
For our sake He was crucified under Pontius Pilate;
He suffered death and was buried.
On the third day He rose again
in accordance with the Scriptures;
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead,
and His kingdom will have no end.
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,
who proceeds from the Father and the Son.
With the Father and the Son, He is worshiped and glorified.
He has spoken through the Prophets.
We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.
We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
We look for the resurrection of the dead,
and the life of the world to come. Amen.
Both creeds were formulated in response to theological controversies and played significant roles in shaping Christian orthodoxy. Yet despite their foundational importance, it is surprising to note that neither the Apostles' Creed nor the Nicene Creed explicitly addresses the doctrine of Hell. Instead, they prioritize affirming core tenets such as the Trinity, Christ's incarnation, and the resurrection. The focus, like the Didache, is more about how we live “on earth, as it is in heaven.” The omission of hell raises questions about the early Church's emphasis on eschatological concerns, particularly regarding the afterlife.
Biblical scholars and theologians have reflected on the significance of this absence of references to Hell in the creeds. N.T. Wright, a prominent New Testament scholar, notes, "The Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed focus on the central mysteries of the Christian faith—God's identity, Christ's work, and the Holy Spirit's role in redemption. They leave room for theological exploration and diversity of interpretation regarding eschatological realities." Similarly, Richard Bauckham, a leading authority on early Christianity, observes, "The silence on Hell in the creeds reflects the early Church's emphasis on proclaiming the good news of God's kingdom and the hope of resurrection, rather than dwelling on speculative details about the afterlife."
IV. Three Emerging Views of Hell
As Christianity continued to evolve, three diverse views on the nature of Hell emerged, reflecting the theological diversity within the faith: annihilationism, eternal conscious torment, and universalism. Additionally, various concepts of a middle state, such as purgatory, toll houses, and refinement by fire, have played prominent roles in shaping Christian beliefs about the afterlife. Let’s look at each.
Annihilationism
Annihilationism proposes that the wicked will ultimately face destruction or annihilation instead of experiencing eternal conscious punishment in Hell. This view suggests that the punishment for sin is not eternal suffering but rather the cessation of existence.
Early proponents of annihilationism found support in biblical passages such as Matthew 10:28, "Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell," where Jesus speaks of the soul being destroyed in Hell. The concept gained traction in the early Church, with theologians such as Arnobius and Lactantius advocating for it.
Arnobius, a Christian apologist of the third century, articulated the belief in the eventual annihilation of the wicked. In his work "Against the Heathen," Arnobius argues that the punishment of the wicked will not be everlasting but will culminate in their destruction. Similarly, Lactantius, a Christian writer of the same period, emphasized the finality of judgment for the wicked, asserting that they would cease to exist rather than suffer eternally.
Eternal Conscious Torment
Contrary to annihilationism, eternal conscious torment asserts that the wicked will endure everlasting suffering and torment in Hell. This view has been dominant throughout much of Christian history and has been supported by influential theologians such as Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. The doctrine maintains that Hell is a place of unending punishment where the damned experience perpetual agony and separation from God.
Augustine of Hippo, a towering figure in Christian theology, vehemently defended the doctrine of eternal conscious torment. In his seminal work "City of God," Augustine argues that the torments of Hell are eternal and irrevocable, emphasizing the severity of divine judgment upon the wicked. Similarly, Thomas Aquinas, a prominent theologian of the medieval period, affirmed the everlasting nature of Hell's torments, grounding his arguments in both scripture and philosophical reasoning.
Key Scriptures Supporting Eternal Conscious Torment are Matthew 25:46 - "Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life,” and Revelation 14:11 - "And the smoke of their torment will rise for ever and ever. There will be no rest day or night for those who worship the beast and its image, or for anyone who receives the mark of its name."
The Issue with "Aionian"
However, one significant issue arises concerning the interpretation of certain scriptures that mention eternal punishment or eternal life. The Greek word often translated as "eternal" in these contexts is "aionian," derived from "aion," which refers to an age or a period of time. Scholars note that "aionian" does not necessarily denote endless duration but rather an age or epoch, leaving room for differing interpretations.
For example, in Matthew 25:46, Jesus speaks of "eternal punishment" and "eternal life." The Greek phrase used here is "kolasis aionios" for punishment and "zoe aionios" for life. While some interpret "aionios" to mean everlasting, others argue that it signifies a period of time with a definite end, consistent with the concept of annihilationism or universalism. This linguistic ambiguity complicates the interpretation of passages related to the duration of punishment in Hell.
Universalism
The third view is every bit as old and growing in popularity: universalism. Universalism posits that, ultimately, all souls will be reconciled to God and experience redemption and restoration. This view suggests that God's love and mercy extend to all humanity, leading to the eventual salvation of every soul. Early Christian universalists, including Origen and Gregory of Nyssa, advocated for this perspective, emphasizing God's desire for the salvation of all.
Origen, an influential theologian of the third century, espoused a hopeful vision of universal salvation in his writings. While accepted by his peers, many later church influencers argue that Origen's views are heretical. He believed in the eventual restoration of all beings to their original state of harmony with God, positing that even the souls in Hell would eventually be purified and reconciled. Gregory of Nyssa, a fourth-century theologian and mystic, similarly embraced universalist beliefs, envisioning God's ultimate triumph over evil and the reconciliation of all creation.
Key Scriptures Supporting Universalism include Romans 5:18 - "Consequently, just as one trespass resulted in condemnation for ALL people, so also one righteous act resulted in justification and life for ALL people," and 1 Corinthians 15:22 - "For as in Adam All die, so in Christ ALL will be made alive."
In light of this linguistic nuance, proponents of universalism argue that the ultimate reconciliation of all souls is consistent with the overarching message of God's love and redemption revealed in Christ. They maintain that God's mercy extends beyond temporal judgments, encompassing the eventual restoration of all creation to unity with the divine.
Refinement by Fire: A Middle Ground
In discussions about the nature of Hell and the fate of souls, it would be remiss not to consider the middle ground represented by the concept of refinement by fire. This view suggests that souls undergo a process of purification or refinement through the fire of God's love, leading to eventual reconciliation and restoration. While not explicitly defined in scripture, this concept finds support in passages that speak of refining fire as a metaphor for God's transformative love and purifying grace.
One biblical passage often cited in support of refinement by fire is 1 Corinthians 3:13-15, where Paul writes, "Each one's work will become manifest, for the Day will disclose it, because it will be revealed by fire, and the fire will test what sort of work each one has done. If the work that anyone has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a reward. If anyone's work is burned up, he will suffer loss, though he himself will be saved, but only as through fire."
Here, fire symbolizes the purifying work of God's judgment, refining believers' works and ultimately leading to their salvation.
Christian theologians throughout history have explored the concept of refinement by fire and its implications for the afterlife. Origen, for example, spoke of the purifying fires of God's love as a means of cleansing souls and restoring them to their original state of union with God. His writings emphasize the transformative power of divine love to heal and redeem all creation.
Similarities to Purgatory
The concept of refinement by fire bears similarities to the Catholic doctrine of purgatory, although it is not explicitly defined in scripture. Purgatory is understood as a temporary state of purification for souls destined for Heaven but in need of cleansing from venial sins. This purification is believed to involve suffering, akin to the refining fire mentioned in 1 Corinthians 3:15. While not identical to the concept of refinement by fire, purgatory shares the idea of a transformative process leading to eventual reconciliation and union with God.
Eastern Orthodox Views of Toll Houses
In Eastern Orthodoxy, some traditions speak of toll houses, intermediate states where souls undergo judgment before reaching their destination. This belief is based on various interpretations of scripture, including passages that speak of spiritual warfare and the struggle against demonic forces. While the concept of toll houses is not universally accepted within Eastern Orthodoxy, it reflects the emphasis on spiritual purification and the journey of the soul toward union with God.
Evangelical Views
Statistics show that a significant percentage of Christians, including Catholics, Coptics, and Orthodox, hold views that incorporate elements of refinement by fire, purgatory, or toll houses into their beliefs about the afterlife. However, many Protestants, and particularly Evangelicals, do not agree with these views. They often reject them as non-biblical or contrary to the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith alone.
Leading Evangelical theologians, such as John Piper and Al Mohler, argue against the concepts of purgatory, refinement by fire, and toll houses, maintaining that they detract from the sufficiency of Christ's atoning work on the cross. They emphasize the importance of relying solely on scripture for understanding the afterlife and salvation, rejecting any teachings that deviate from the protestant understanding of biblical orthodoxy.
Conclusion
In contemporary evangelical theology, the prevailing perspective on hell often centers around the doctrine of eternal conscious torment. Esteemed theologians like Wayne Grudem, in his seminal work "Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine," affirm this doctrine as a fundamental belief within evangelicalism. Grudem argues that biblical passages, such as Matthew 25:46 and Revelation 14:11, support the concept of hell as a realm of everlasting punishment for those who remain unrepentant.
Conversely, in many European nations with historically Protestant roots like Germany and Sweden, traditional beliefs concerning hell and eternal punishment have waned. Instead, many Christians in these regions lean towards more liberal or universalist interpretations of scripture, entertaining doubts about the literal existence of hell or advocating for the ultimate salvation of all souls.
Nevertheless, in countries where evangelicalism holds sway, such as America, Brazil, and South Korea, the doctrine of eternal conscious torment persists among Protestant denominations. However, cultural and theological nuances inherent to each context may lead to variances in emphasis or interpretation.
Scripture underscores the importance of embracing love, righteousness, and compassion, urging believers to embody these principles in their daily lives. Jesus Himself emphasized the foundational commandments to love God and love others (Matthew 22:37-39), while the apostle Paul encouraged focusing on virtuous living (Philippians 4:8). Thus, while theological reflection remains integral, it is equally crucial not to neglect the imperative of living faithfully in the present moment, as emphasized by the Bible, the early church, and the creeds. After all, it is never too early to embrace the transformative power of Jesus' love and reconciliation, fostering lives of peace, love, and righteousness in Christ.
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